Tools · Solidification Cracking

Al-Cu Solidification Cracking Susceptibility

Slide the bulk copper content of a binary Al-Cu alloy and watch the Scheil solidification path, Kou's terminal-slope cracking index, and where that composition falls on the classic Pumphrey & Lyons "lambda" susceptibility curve, all updating live.

⚠ Disclaimer: Use at Your Own Risk This tool is provided "as is," for general engineering reference and educational purposes only, with no warranty of any kind. It uses a simplified binary Al-Cu model: a linearized liquidus (pure Al at 660.3°C to the eutectic at 33.0 wt% Cu / 548°C), a constant partition coefficient (k = 0.17), and the Scheil equation (no solid-state diffusion, complete liquid mixing) to generate the solidification path, terminated by an isothermal eutectic reaction. The cracking susceptibility index follows S. Kou, "A criterion for cracking during solidification," Acta Materialia 88 (2015) 366–374, defined as the maximum local steepness of the T–√fs curve, found up to Kou's √fs = 0.99 evaluation limit. This is exactly as shown in his own worked figure for 6061/2219/2014/2024/7075, where a short tangent is fit to the steepest part of each curve, always short of the flat eutectic plateau since a flat segment can never contain the maximum. The result is then compared against the classic hot-shortness curves of P.H. Pumphrey & J.V. Lyons (1948). Real Al-Cu alloys deviate from a linear liquidus and constant k, especially above a few wt% Cu, and actual cracking depends heavily on restraint, grain structure, and impurities not modeled here. Jeffrium and Jeffrey Sowards assume no liability for decisions, designs, procedures, or outcomes based on this tool's output. Do not use these results as the sole basis for alloy selection or procedure qualification; verify independently. Use of this tool is entirely at your own risk.
Alloy Composition

Model constants: Tm = 660.3°C, Te = 548.0°C, Ce = 33.0 wt% Cu, k = 0.17.

Result
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Dendrite-Tip Liquid Composition

Scheil: CL* = C₀·(1−fs)k−1

Solidification Path - Kou's Slope

CSI = max |dT / d√fs|, up to √fs = 0.99

Cracking Susceptibility vs. Composition

The Pumphrey & Lyons "lambda" curve, with your composition marked live

Low/Moderate/High bands are relative to this model's own computed peak, not an absolute imported threshold.

S. Kou, "A criterion for cracking during solidification," Acta Materialia 88 (2015) 366–374; P.H. Pumphrey & J.V. Lyons, "Cracking during the Casting and Welding of the More Common Binary Aluminium Alloys," J. Inst. Metals 74 (1948) 439. Liquidus/eutectic data and k are simplified, literature-typical values; see disclaimer above.

How it works

How the Al-Cu cracking model works

Solidification cracking happens when nearly solid grains are pulled apart before the last liquid can fill the gaps. Alloys with around 1% copper are the worst, which gives the classic lambda-shaped curve.

The math

ScheilCL* = C0 · (1 − fs)k−1
Kou indexCSI = max |dT / d(fs½)|
C0bulk copper content
fsfraction solid
kpartition coefficient, 0.17
Limitevaluated up to fs½ = 0.99

Example results

GivenCracking index as a share of the model's peak
0.6 wt% Cu47%
1.3 wt% Cu100% (peak)
4.5 wt% Cu21%
6.3 wt% Cu14% (2219, ER2319)
ResultWorst near 1.3 wt% Cu

This is why higher-solute fillers are used: they move the weld away from the peak.

More detail

Why the curve is lambda-shaped

Pure aluminum freezes over a narrow range, so there's little time for cracks to form. High-copper alloys have enough eutectic liquid to backfill any cracks that open. In between, around 1% Cu, there's a long, steep end to solidification with little liquid left to heal cracks.

Kou's index captures this: a steep T vs. √fs curve means grains need a large temperature drop to bond, while liquid must feed shrinkage through long, narrow channels.

Model assumptions and limits

The model assumes a binary Al-Cu alloy, a straight-line liquidus from 660.3 °C to the eutectic (33 wt% Cu, 548 °C), a constant k, and Scheil conditions (full liquid mixing, no solid diffusion). Commercial alloys contain Mg, Si, and Mn, and real cracking also depends on restraint and grain size, so use it for trends, not to rank real alloys.

References
  • S. Kou, “A criterion for cracking during solidification,” Acta Materialia 88, 2015, 366–374.
  • P.H. Pumphrey and J.V. Lyons, J. Inst. Metals 74, 1948, 439.
  • E. Scheil, Z. Metallkunde 34, 1942, 70–72.
  • S. Kou, Welding Metallurgy, 2nd ed., Wiley, 2003.

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